One of the central tenets of sociology is that individual and group behavior is inextricably linked to society. There are patterns in behavior that do not happen by chance, since they occur consistently and in relatively similar conditions.

For example, homelessness is an unfortunate condition in the United States. It is a pattern, since it happens consistently and is present in almost all parts of the country and the world.

When looking at demographic data on homelessness, we realize that there are certain groups of people that are more vulnerable to being homeless: males, poor, the mentally ill, those with substance abuse problems, history of incarceration, those that were physically/sexually abused by family members, and chronic physical problems. Overall economic growth and social policies also affect levels of homelessness.

When the country sees a decline in economic productivity, the levels of homelessness increase. When housing markets, especially for low-income and the poor are inflated in price, then the number or people taking advantage of shelters increases. Given these associations, sociologists believe that homelessness, as a condition, cannot just be explained by a person's history (person is homeless because he is lazy and he is not motivated)—rather, larger social phenomenon are at play and need to be analyzed.

Certain groups are more likely to be homeless, and factors such as the economy and government policies, which are for the most part beyond the control of an individual, are influencing a person's life.

Based on our explanation of how sociology analyzes human behavior, it is easy to fall prey to the idea that sociology is about blaming the world for a person's troubles and not holding people accountable for their actions. This is neither the goal nor the intention of sociology.

Keep in mind that unlike psychology, sociology looks at social issues and groups as points of explanations and reference. We want to understand why homelessness exists by looking at which social categories and groups are more likely to become homeless and in what social conditions, so we can better understand WHY people become homeless.

Imagine if you were a policy maker and your job is to address the level of homelessness in your community. If you knew more about the demographics of homelessness, the reasons why people become homeless, and the government and social policies that negatively or positively affect levels of homelessness, then you can design programs that specifically target the groups that are most vulnerable to losing their homes and create a society can best handle these problems.You can't have a specific policy for each person. That's just impossible, unfair, and inefficient.

Another example of understanding social behavior through sociology is how we view education in contemporary times. It is only in the latter half of the 20th century where going to a 4-year college has become the norm. In hunting and gathering societies, schools—as formal institutions did not exist. In agricultural societies, people learned their basic skills at home or would do apprenticeships to learn their trade. If you wanted to learn how to be a cobbler, a watchmaker, or a dressmaker, you learned by having a mentor. Moreover, what we now consider as “formal education” through institutions was reserved for the rich, the privileged, and males.

This type of arrangement continued on until the industrial revolution, but has slowly changed since then. As jobs become more specified and more complex, professional careers such as those in the medical field, law, academics, and science and engineering require formal training. Currently, our job market requires most employees to have at least a high school diploma, but the most coveted and higher paying jobs require a 4-year college education if not more. This example on education shows how a collective behavior (attaining an education) is highly influenced by changes in technology, social patterns, and economic structures (social environment). Sociology allows us to understand behavior that we consider “normal” and makes us realize that what is “normal” changes through time and across culture. Imagine, the reason you are now reading this book, taking an introduction to sociology course with the hopes of getting a college degree is more than a personal decision!

Sociology challenges the concept of “innateness” when it comes to social behavior and social change. We do things not because it is “natural” for humans, but that actions and what we believe is right or wrong are learned—either taught to us explicitly or implicitly. Social rules develop for a number of reasons. These rules are not finite and are mutable and vary across culture and history. Take slavery for example. Slavery was considered “normal” in our country and in some parts of the world throughout history, and those who fought against it were considered wrong. Even after the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 by Abraham Lincoln, the concept of human beings as being unequal persisted in the US. In fact, it still persists in other parts of the world in the 21st century.

Of course, in contemporary times in the US, slavery is considered inhumane and illegal, but this was not the case before. Murder is another example. Societies sanction and even glorify the killing of another human being (i.e. war), in certain circumstances, but frowned upon in another context. For sociologists, this is a sign that these beliefs are cultural and socially constructed. People are not programmed, through their nature, to think that the act of killing and slavery is wrong in principle; rather, we have to be taught to comprehend that these acts are immoral. Sociology is not saying that either murder or slavery is right, but what it does is to challenge what we believe is common sense. In essence, sociology gives an alternative way of looking at ourselves and the world around us. It allows us to understand our basic values and actions from a sociological perspective.

The sociological way of thinking, the sociological perspective, or sociological imagination was first elaborated by C. Wright Mills. The concept, sociological imagination, is the awareness of the link between the public and the personal sphere.

This world-view encourages us to understand what is happening to us from a personal level, is a product of public forces. Our examples on homelessness, slavery, murder, and marriage all make use of the sociological imagination.

Here is another example in contemporary times. 2008 has been marked by an economic downturn in the United States with the housing market crash and banking collapse. If you worked as a stock broker at Wall Street or you were a waitress in a restaurant in downtown New York City and you lost your job, what has happened to you is a consequence of larger historical and economic change. Thus, these personal troubles (losing your job) is a product of larger forces (economic depression).

This is one of the practical uses of sociolgogy. If you want to know what kind of career will work in the future, don't think about what is good right now. Always think ahead and understand how the world works and how it is changing. And that's the key.The world is always changing, and it pays off to be aware and informed.

As personal troubles are affected by what is happening in society, collective personal troubles will also shape the public sphere. Using our 2008 economic collapse example, the lost of jobs means the government will most likely provide more resources for the unemployed and the poor. During an economic downturn, enrollments in trade and professional schools go up as more people use their time unemployed to gain new skills. Historical data shows that during economic hardships, marriage rates go down (Coltrane 2001). It is believed that people get married when they feel secure financially and emotionally. With jobs hard to find and job security tenuous, people are less likely to get married. These correlations show a level of interdependence among people's lives, history, and society.

The sociological way of thinking has another implication. If social occurrences and problems are a product of larger forces, then solutions are beyond the personal. The sociological imagination tells us that change has to first happen in the social level by changing institutions and policies, and in turn, these personal problems will be corrected.

Another aspect of the sociological thinking is being able to assess situations from various perspectives. Being able to think outside of your own belief system is a critical skill sociology develops. As sociologists, we attempt to strip ourselves of our identities and try to think outside of our selves.

Let's take Iran's nuclear program and apply the sociological imagination. With the help of United States in the 1950s under the Atoms for Peace program, Iran started to develop a nuclear program for energy purposes. The Atoms for Peace program was proposed by President Eisenhower in the 1950s with the aim of curtailing the spread of nuclear weapons. Guided by an optimistic worldview, Eisenhower believed that the “spread of peaceful nuclear technology” would control the arms race (Reiss, 2003).

With the end of the Cold War and the soured relationship between the US and Iran, the US has accused Iran of violating the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and using nuclear technology for military purposes. On the other hand, Iran has insisted that their development is strictly a means of alternative energy given their booming population and industrialization. The findings of The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that Iran was developing nuclear technology for civilian and not military purposes has been dismissed by the some European countries and the US (BBC 10/30/2007).

The thought of having a nuclear capable Iran can be viewed from various perspectives. Americans are disapproving of a nuclear Iran because of US ties to Israel and how a nuclear Iran might encourage other countries in the Middle East to acquire nuclear technology. Iranians, on the other hand, might see a benefit in having nuclear weapons. Given its foreign policy under George W. Bush, the US has been less likely to use military force against nuclear countries such as North Korea, Pakistan, and Russia. Thus, from an Iranian standpoint, having witnessed a neighboring country without nuclear weapons, Iraq, invaded by the US, a nuclear weapon for some might seem to be a rational choice to deter military threat from the US. While Iran thinks it is acting defensively by acquiring nuclear weapons, the US is interpreting Iran's alleged nuclear development as an offensive act against national security. In this case, the lines between what is offensive and defensive have been blurred. In using the sociological way of thinking, situations are not as clear-cut as they seem. In understanding the other perspective, we are able to gain a more thorough assessment of other people's action. To claim that Iran wants nuclear weapons because they are simply violent is a misconception if one uses the sociological imagination and acknowledges the rationale behind their actions. On the other hand, the US' position cannot be dismissed as simply paranoid given their fear of nuclear proliferation.

Notice how in this example, I am not making a claim on whether or not Iran is right or wrong, or if the US is right or wrong. Rather, in using the sociological way of thinking to assess the situation, there is an attempt to eliminate subjectivity. Our goal in studying sociology is to analyze situations objectively. To learn how to put aside our personal biases in assessing events.

One misconception one might have of sociology is that the discipline does nothing more than point out the “common sense” or maybe even reinforce stereotypes. Some would argue that we do not need sociology to point out that the likelihood of losing one's job increases during economic depression, since this is general knowledge. On the contrary, the research methods used, the importance placed on data collection, and the discipline's attempt to eliminate biases has helped deconstruct certain misconceptions about people and the world.

Sociology reminds us not to be deceived by what we consider “true” or a given, since societies and situations are not as simple as they may seem.

An example of how sociological research has resulted to findings contrary to popular beliefs is the study by Laud Humphreys and homosexuality. Humphreys conducted a field research on casual homosexual acts in public restrooms. The common belief what that people who participated in these acts were homosexuals. Until his work, impersonal sex in public restrooms was known, but not studied in depth. In his book, Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places (1975), Humphreys data showed that the men who participated in these acts were of different backgrounds: married, unmarried, and heterosexuals and homosexuals alike. The number of heterosexual married males in his study was astounding. Through interviews and observation, he concluded that heterosexual men especially resorted to these behaviors because of society's persecution of homosexual behaviors. These men felt the need to have “normal” family lives because of social pressure and these Tearooms were a part of their secret life. His findings were clearly against the prevalent belief in the 70s that men who participated in these acts were the self-proclaimed and publicly known homosexuals.

Sociology also helps us understand the break in social patterns and the unexpected. Analyzing events that do not occur often such as school shootings, infanticide, revolutions, and terrorist attacks remind us that generally, most societies have social cohesion. These rare events provide sociologists with case studies in studying the breakdown of social order and change.

Sociology provides us with a more dynamic perception of the world. It allows us to look at behavior from the “other” perspective. It reminds us that actions are not random—rather they are guided by larger social forces. This frame of mind gives meaning to the mundane and to what is foreign or different. Sociology reminds us that what is “normal” is relative and that what is “truth” and “good” have changed throughout history and across cultures. In essence, the discipline leads to a level of tolerance and creates a platform for dialog between people and cultures.

Aside from allowing us to understand the “other”, sociology also allows us to reflect on our own actions. By highlighting our identities, whether it be social class, age, gender, race, or religion, we can better explain our own actions and trajectories. This awareness makes us question “why” we do things rather than blindly following traditions and expectations. Given the chance to question and challenge our own convictions, we either decide to change or maintain the status quo. Sociology does not judge nor does it promote the need to change. Rather, it encourages us to think and decide for ourselves what we deem is right or wrong. The basic premise of sociology is that we are all a product of our social environment. By questioning what society tells us, we take control of ourselves and our lives.

So far, the reasons mentioned as to the importance of sociology relate to the abstract and the personal. There are practical uses to sociology. For policy purposes, studies on social change and groups behavior are the central tenets of policy making. The research methods used in the discipline, such as surveys, statistical analysis, economic data, and fieldwork gives policy makers the data and the analytical tools to better address social problems and formulate laws and policies. In marketing and advertising, the art of deciphering social behavior and convincing the public to buy products relies a great deal on the principles of sociology. The argument is: if people are a product of their environment, then manipulating the environment can change people's behavior. People interested in social work also make use of sociological studies in assessing poverty, education, and employment.

What I have enumerated are specific career niches where sociology is used overtly. However, the tolerance and holistic perspective that sociology offers in the study of society touches all fields of interest. A nurse or a doctor would better serve their patients if aware of cultural differences and its implications in medicine. A family lawyer can better handle clients if knowledgeable of the social aspects of why divorce happens and its personal and social consequences. An engineer can design better cars if possessed of the knowledge of who will buy which types of cars and why.

Chambliss, Daniel F. 1989. “The Mundanity of Excellence: An Ethnographic Report on Stratification and Olympic Swimmers.”

• What is Chambilss' main argument in this essay?
• What is his point in writing the essay?
• Why is excellence mundane according to the author?
• What does it take to train Olympic level swimmers according to the article?

In explaining certain behaviors and what social forces systematically causes these actions, sociologists develop and work with certain sets of theories. Theories in sociology are “attempts to explain events, forces, materials, ideas, or behavior in a comprehensive manner (Schaefer 9, 2007) .” Unlike the sciences and mathematics, however, theory in sociology is less finite and not as precise. This is understandable—the science of human behavior cannot explain 100% why people behave the way they do, but we can make certain assumptions, correlations, and statistical claims with our findings.

Although there are early sociologists that are not from Europe, Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) of Tunisia for example, our focus will be on European sociologists and its development in the west. The 18th and 19th century were socially tumultuous for most of Europe, with the development of industrialization and capitalism. In the previous century, people started challenging the traditional medieval period's belief systems about the role of religion and politics with the Protestant Reformation under the influence of Martin Luther and John Calvin. In 1789 the French Revolution led to the overthrow of the French monarchy. It was under these social uncertainties that sociology developed. Sociologists tried to find a scientific way in uncovering how societies worked—what led societies to chaos and stability. Some of the early theorists are Auguste Comte (1798-1857), Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Max Weber (1864-1920), and Karl Marx (1818-1883).

We will not go into detail on each theorist, but will refer to them when necessary throughout the text. To explain more the role of theory and how it is applied in sociology, we will be using Durkheim's work on suicide.

In the United States 44,193 committed suicide in 2015. Suicide is the 10th cause of death and costs $51 billion annually (from lost of productivity, medical care). Males are 3.5x more likely to commit suicie than women. A majority of those who committed suicide use firearms.

In November 2008, Abraham Briggs committed suicide on the internet as viewers commented—some encouraging him to do it, others begging him not to. His video cam was still on as police entered his room. In October 2007, a 14-year old student shoots 4 people and kills himself in his school near downtown Cleveland,Ohio. Individual assessments of suicide, whether these people were depressed, frustrated, or suffering from psychological problems, does not tell us why certain groups commit more suicide than others, why some people choose to do it in groups, why others feel the need to kill before committing suicide, or the trends in the number of suicides. This is where sociology comes into play.

Durkheim wrote Suicide (1897), and theorized on the sociological conditions that lead to different types of suicides. He collected data on rates of suicides among various social groups in Europe. He compared current and historical data on rates of suicide and looked for patterns and changes in suicide rates. The argument is that, if depression and personal reasons determined suicide rates, then he did not expect to find any noticeable patterns in his data, but if certain groups or time periods were different, then social factors contributed to suicide rates. Based on his findings, Durkheim created a typology for suicide.

Durkheim distinguished between four types of suicides. Anomic suicide occurs when a person's life is suddenly disrupted by major social events, such as war, famine, or economic depression. When people experience such drastic changes and disruptions to their life, a sense of disconnect and frustration sets in. Although Japan has always been labeled as a “suicide nation”, the jump in rates since the late 1990s has been interpreted by sociologists as a result of economic stagnation in Japan.

Based on the data collected in Europe, Durkheim found that suicide rates were consistently higher for the widowed, single, divorced, childless, and for Protestants. Those who were married, with children, and Catholics had lower suicide rates. He refers to this as egotistic suicide. When families, groups, and community ties are weak or unimportant, people will feel alone and depressed. In comparing the Catholics with the Protestants, Catholics emphasize community and congregation as an important aspect of salvation. On the other hand, Protestants focus on individualism and and personal responsibility as a way to God. Individualism is an important aspect of contemporary American society. People play video games, surf the web, or watch TV instead meeting with friends. With ipods, personal interaction on the streets is discouraged. In the urban sprawls, the freeway and are cars prevent us from having face to face human contact. In fact, suicide rates in the US are the highest in Montana (22), Nevada (19.9), Alaska (19.7), and New Mexico (17.7), where population density is low.

Suicide rates can also increase when social and community ties are very strong. In an altruistic suicide, a person subsumes his individuality with the collective identity. An example would be the Kamikaze bombs during WWII. During the war, Kamikaze pilots would intentionally crash their aircrafts, often with a full fuel tank and laden with explosives for the cause of war. Japanese military culture emphasized the honor of death in war and the shame of defeat and capture. The samurai code encouraged seppuku, a ritual suicide by disembowelment, if a samurai committed mistakes that would cause shame or if in danger of falling into the hands of the enemy.

Lastly, fatalistic suicide occurs when people prefer to die than live in an overly oppressive community. A example would be the suicide attempts of those imprisoned in Guantanamo Bay under the Bush Administration. After the US invaded Afghanistan, the US used Guantanamo Bay to detain people suspected of association with the Taliban. Most of these people have been detained since 2001 without being charged with a crime. Hunger strikes have been common in the prison and the military is force-feeding prisoners to prevent them from dying. The US military has been accused of inaccurately reporting suicides. Jumah Dossari's attempted to commit suicide while outsiders were present is believed to be a sign of desperation from the prisoners. Dossari, while visited by his lawyer, pleaded to go to the restroom and did not come back. He was seen hanging from a noose tied to the ceiling (Washington Post 11/1/2005). Uncertain if they will ever leave Guantanamo or receive a trial, with some prisoners believed to be in isolation for years, the environment in Guantanamo has led to the suicides

Theories on suicide helps us breakdown the sociological reasons for suicide and provide a framework of analysis. Solid and well-research theories allow us to decipher patterns in society. Sociology reminds us that as individuals, we cannot be separated from the larger world around us. These patters and interconnectedness remind us how vulnerable we are to social changes and decisions made outside of our purview. Sociology encourages us to be more aware of our society and the world around us. What happens a thousand miles away from us, will eventually affect us indirectly.

• Altruistic Suicide
• Anomic Suicide
• Collective Behavior
• Common Sense
• Egotistic Suicide
• Emile Durkheim
• Fatalistic Suicide
• Interdependence
• Nature vs. Nature
• Patterns in Behavior
• Public Sphere
• Social Category
• Social Cohesion
• Social Construction
• Social Environment
• Sociological Imagination
• Sociological Perspective
• Subjectivity
• Theory