Status refers to any socially defined position in society. Such as a mother, lawyer, professor, president of a country, inmate, rapist, Cuban, beggar etc. A person can occupy many statuses at once. There are 2 different types of status: ascribed and achieved. Ascribed status refers to a social position that is acquired at birth or later in life beyond our control: sex, age, the status as a daughter for example. These ascribed statuses can change through time: In the US, when a person reaches 65 and becomes a senior citizen. In contrast, achieved status are positions we acquire through our own efforts. Being a college graduate, mother, and a dentist all require work.

The level of prestige society places on these statuses can mean differently across cultures. In India, Sadhus or ascetics are people who give up worldly pleasures and the everyday routines of society and devote their lives to prayers. Their lifestyle may vary, either living in mountains in isolation, in ashrams or temples, or others become nomads. In India, sadhus are commonly referred to as “baba” which means means father or uncle as a sign of respect. The reverence granted to sadhus in Indian culture may not be mimicked in another culture. Imagine if in the US, a person gives up their job and family, may have to rely on the good graces of strangers for food, and lives on the streets—would that person be respected or ostracized as lazy and irresponsible? Also, our achieved status is in some level dependent on our ascribed status. For example, in the US, a female is more likely to become a nurse than a male.

Since an individual can hold multiple statuses, The master status is the status that is the most salient of all the statuses and as a result is the status that people will mostly associate with. For example, OJ Simpson was an accomplished running back in American football, but he will probably will be most remembered for his status as one acquitted of double murder. In US society, race plays a very important part in determining a person's status. During the 2008 presidential race, President Barak Hussein Obama's African heritage was highlighted. Notice however that Republican Presidential candidate Senator John McCain's race was not the focal point; rather, it was his age. Thus, in the US, more than race, it is the statuses that are the least expected in a given situation that dominate attention. In short, circumstances matter in terms of which status will become the master status. Generally, when a person occupies a status that is unexpected in a given situation, that status becomes the master status. Given that most presidents have been white, Obama's race stood out. Another example is the rapper Eminem. In a niche in the music industry dominated by blacks, his race became his mater status.

Social roles are what is expected of people given a certain status. Doctors are expected to have the knowledge to diagnose symptoms; students are expected to respect their teachers; parents are expected to care for their children and provide basic needs. Roles can be fulfilled in various ways, but the general expectations are constant. Failure to fulfill a role is seen as a form of deviance in most cases. Expectations differ across cultures. For example, in Asian cultures, children are expected to take care of their parents when their elders reach a certain age. Role conflict happens when a person, occupying two ore more statuses is faced with competing expectations from society. On May 6, 2008, a former Navy SEAL refused to testify against his boss, computer chip billionaire Henry T. Nicholas, co-founder of Broadcom, who was accused of improperly backdating stock options in his own company. Stephen “Otter” Otten refused to testify against Nicholas claiming “emotional ties” to the Nicholas family, which he considered “family members” (LA Times 5/6/2008). The judge in the case claimed that there were no legal grounds to excuse family members from grand jury testimony and sent Otten to jail. Otten's social role as a faithful employee and family member conflicts with his role as a law abiding citizen. Role conflict also happens when a person's ascribed status conflicts with a person's achieved status. For example, a female becoming a fire fighter.

Sociologists use the concept of a group to refer to two or more people who interact with one another on a regular basis, are aware of themselves as belonging to a group, and share similar goals and values. Examples are a book club, a sports team, a church, and a choir. With the internet and the proliferation of online networks, the need for face-to-face interaction has redefined the meaning of a group in sociology. Being a member of an online community is being a part of a group.

A number of people in an elevator is NOT a group, since people in an elevator rarely interact with one another—notice how people in an elevator face the door and not each other? Even if the people in the elevator are going in a similar direction (similar goal), the lack of constant interaction disqualifies these people as a group in sociological terms. Most individual day-to-day interaction happens within groups, so groups are crucial units of analysis in sociology and are important components of social structure.

How a group is structured dictates the types of interactions and relationships among members. For example, a group can be egalitarian or hierarchical. Egalitarian groups foster equality among members, while hierarchical groups have a more rigid power structure. The size of a group also matters in determining interactions among members, with a dyad being the smallest unit with two members. Marriage is an example. Georg Simmel (1858-1918), a prominent German sociologist, claims that dyads generate the most intense and emotional groups. Since there are only two members, dyads tend to be the most fragile. If one member leaves, the group will most likely disintegrate. A triad consists of three members and are more stable. If one person leaves, you are still left with a dyad. In a triad, situations are dealt with differently compared to a dyad. Coalitions and alliances are common. For example, two individuals might form a coalition against the other member.

The type of interaction in a group is also influenced by the level of contact we have with members. A primary group is made of members that have direct and frequent contact and longevity. A secondary group is characterized by impersonal relationships among its members with less emotional ties and investment. An example would be co-workers or classmates. Finally, our statuses, both ascribed and achieved, influence which groups we will belong to. This is an important point, since our social networks—the people we know and the connections we will established our heavily influenced by our groups. This means that there are certain people that you might never meet or bump into as a result of your status and group affiliation.

Organizations are characterized by groups formed for specific purposes, wherein membership is most likely to be voluntary. Sierra Club is an organization whose members are concerned about a specific cause: protecting the environment. Sierra Club has been around since 1892 and currently has 1.3 million members. Founded by John Muir (1838-1914), with prominent members such as Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), Sierra Club is responsible for the creation of the great parks in the US such as Yosemite, Sequoia, and the Grand Canyon. Another example of an organization is a corporation, with the employees as members. Most corporations have a distinct goal: profit, and every member is working towards this goal. While the Sierra Club and corporations in general are an examples of stable and permanent organizations, there are organizations that do not have longevity. For example, during elections, organizations for a specific candidate are formed and will most likely disband after elections.

Social Institutions are the foundations of societies. The family, economy, government, media, healthcare system are examples of institutions. These institutions continue to evolve and have changed their functions throughout history. Also, keep in mind that different societies may allocate different functions and goals for the same institutions. The book will touch upon each institution in more detail in the following chapters. What is important to understand at this point is that institutions are organizational units in a society. Analyzing a particular institution's role in society reveals a great deal about how a society functions.

Aside from social institutions, the study of societies must also take into account culture. Culture can translate itself in tangible (objects) and intangible forms (values, norms). In sociology, culture refers to the beliefs, knowledge, language, objects, and behavior, that are learned and socially transmitted. By learn, we are not necessarily referring to something that has to be taught in a classroom. Rather these unspoken beliefs and rules are learned through interaction. When you are “learning” culture, no one is going to tell you that you are learning a culture, you just do it. For example, children in either Japan, China, or Korea, you are given a pair of chopsticks at an early age—these children are tacitly learning the culture. In the US, when you see your parents wait in line to pay in the grocery store or buy movie tickets, you are learning culture. Keep in mind that in sociology, culture does not mean refinement or a taste for classical music or art. Meaning, people who listen to classical music and go to art shows are not more “cultured” than people who listen to contemporary music and incognizant of famous artists. This is NOT the way culture is used in sociology. Culture has very little to do with taste; rather, culture in sociological terms refer to all aspects of a society that deal with ideas, norms, values, and objects.

This chapter has introduced you to the central components of society. These social structures are the units of analysis in sociology. Meaning, these are the aspects of society that sociologists analyze and study. How individuals interact with society (statuses and roles), how groups function, and the role of groups and culture in society at large are the dynamics of social life.

• Unit of Analysis
• Social Structures
• Categories
• Status
• Achieved
• Ascribed
• Master Status
• Social Roles
• Role Conflict
• Groups
• Egalitarian
• Hierarchical
• Dyad
• Tria
• Primary Group
• Secondary Group
• Organizations
• Social Institutions
• Culture