When Columbus arrived in the Americas, Native American culture was seen as primitive and compared to the modern European culture. In studying culture, we refrain from making moral adjustments on whether one is more advanced that the other. Cultures are not seen as developing in a trajectory, wherein cultures go through evolutionary stages and other cultures are more evolved that the other. Remember that the Spaniards committed genocide in the Americas—is this a sign that they are more advanced? The two World Wars started in Europe—does this make the continent more modern? In sociology, we analyze culture based on fundamental differences, and not whether one culture is right, wrong, or better than the other.

In understanding culture, values refer to society's ideas and principles. Values are what a society deems moral and correct.

Compared to values, which are abstract and ideals, norms are concrete principles or rules that people are expected to follow in society. There are two types of norms: implicit norms are those that do not need to be written into law or enforced on people, since people will follow them. Explicit norms are the ones that need to be formally enforced or communicated. In the US, an example of implicit norm would be waiting in line. Explicit norm is recycling. Americans need to be given incentives or told repeatedly to recycle and conserve. It is not enough to just realize that having a clean planet is good for everyone.

There are two different types of norms: mores (MORE-ayz) and folkways. Mores are explicit norms that are taken very seriously be society. For example, in a park, not following the sign “please curb your dog” can lead to a fine. On the other hand, folkways are rules that society frowns upon but does not lead to serious punishment. Not flushing the toilet in a public restroom might result to a dirty look to the person using it next, but you are not going to be banned from using public restrooms.

One of the major characteristics of culture is its malleability and dynamism. Culture is transmitted and there is no such thing as a “pure” culture—one unaffected by other cultures. For example, yoga has become a popular American form of exercise and relaxation. Yoga is originally from India with roots from the Vedic traditions, but has been adopted by US society and has sine been “Americanized” in the US. As culture is transmitted, its meaning can change. Yoga in India is part of a the Hindu religious lifestyle. On the other hand, the fact that yoga can be practiced in gyms in the US, shows that yoga is more a physical activity rather than a spiritual one in the East In Hawaii, you can order a “spam musubi”, which consists of fried egg and spam on rice, held together by a seaweed wrap. Spam, an American canned meat is popular in Hawaii and the Philippines. During World War II, soldiers ate Spam, since fresh meat was rare and difficult to transport. Eventually, the locals started eating Spam and adding their own variety. The spam musubi of Hawaii is an example of how American and Japanese culture have influenced Hawaiian cuisine.

Globalization, the rapid integration of the world as a result of technological advance is increasing the pace and level of cultural fusion. As companies go global and with the force of the internet, people all over the world are eating, buying, listening, and viewing the same content. As a result, a global culture emerges. Because of the internet, English has become even more widely understood. In countries that were originally tea drinkers such as Japan and China, will Starbucks turn the tea culture to a coffee culture? Sociologists are divided as to whether the world is becoming one culture or if other cultures maintain their own identity even with the infiltration of a global culture dominated by the west.

In his ethnographic book on how McDonald's has been “localized” in Asia, Golden Arches East: McDonald's in East Asia, James Watson claims that even though McDonald's has infiltrated the Asian diet and eating culture, these restaurants have been integrated into the local culture and have modified what McDonald's represent. McDonald's is not just a place to get food fast, efficiently, and cheaply. For example, in Japan where the houses are generally small, McDonald's has become a common party venue for kids' birthdays. The menu has also been modified: teriyaki burgers are still Japanese and the Maharaja Mac is still Indian. Thus,these countries have modified what McDonald's represents. Although there are aspects of American culture that have been implemented such as clean bathrooms that used to be a rarity in Hong Kong, or waiting in line,Watson claims that this only served to improve the standards for other restaurants.

While Watson paints a rosy picture of the globalization of culture, others are less optimistic and highlight the dangers of promoting certain cultural practices. The World Alliance for Breastfeeding Action (WABA) for years has tried to stop Nestlé's alleged aggressive tactics to promote powdered baby milk in underdeveloped countries. With advertisements glorifying the benefits of powered baby formula, women who traditionally breastfed in underdeveloped countries started using powered milk, which led to serious medical problems and death to infants.

Firstly, formula is mixed with water, since it was expensive, and in some cases mothers were unaware that they were mixing the formula with contaminated water. These mothers, to save money, also used less than the required formula, thus infants were not receiving adequate vitamins and nutrients. Illiteracy also made it difficult for some mothers to read the instructions and were unaware of the proper servings. Nestlé is accused of giving money to heath officials and hospitals to promote their products. While in the hospital, mothers are given Nestlé formula and their lactation is disrupted by the formula, thus forcing them to rely on the formula after they leave the hospital. In the US, doctors and medical professionals are coming to a consensus that breastfeeding provides benefits for both baby and mother that is lacking in formula. Currently the US government encourages women to breastfeed if medically and physically possible (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Thus, as the culture of infant formula is losing its appeal in the West, baby formula corporations are looking to other markets to sell their products.

Evident from our examples, corporations and developed countries have a huge impact in transmitting culture. The concept cultural imperialism was proposed by Herbert Schiller (1919-2000). It refers to how multinational corporations (MNCs) and the media of developed countries dominate and manipulate cultures of underdeveloped countries. Cultural hegemony, on the other hand, was a term coined by Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), which alludes to how one group can dominate a culture by making the group's view common sense or the only truth. Thus, when women demand an engagement ring or men feel the need to give an engagement ring, these norms have become common sense. Women have stopped questioning why they want a diamond engagement ring or why men are willing to pay so much money for them—they just want it because, it's the way it's supposed to be, or it's tradition.

In reality, the price of diamonds is quite irrational. We do not need diamonds to survive, yet we seem to value it more than water or food. At the end of the day, diamonds are hard stones. Sociology reminds us that cultures and traditions are constructed—we make up our truths—what we think is right, beautiful, and valuable. If we never questioned tradition, women might still be wearing chastity belts!

It is not surprising, however, that people unknowingly “follow” culture. Assimilation is an integral process of building a society. There are various ways members of a society are assimilated into the mainstream culture. Institutions such as schools, places of worship, government have have rules and laws that enforce cultural beliefs. Institutions and society normally reward those who conform and punish those who do not. These sanctions can either be formally imposed (formal sanctions) such as imprisonment where you are taken out of society and denied privileges or informally enforced (informal sanctions), such as being ridiculed or covertly denied opportunities available to those who conform. Sanctions can be negative, when unacceptable behavior is punished, or positive, when good behavior is rewarded.

We started the chapter with the philosophical framework that we should not place moral judgments on culture or be ethnocentric. The concept of cultural relativism is the view that beliefs are neither right or wrong and that truth is relative—that we should not judge cultures or societies based on our standards, but analyze them objectively. Although cultural relativism has its wisdom, it can be difficult to judge certain actions and events as simply culture. The Jewish Holocaust, the near extermination of the American Indians, African slavery, the current genocide in Darfur, are but a few examples where cultural relativism seems inadequate and inappropriate.

Within larger societies, multiculturalism or cultural diversity exists, much as in the US. There are also subcultures within a larger culture. These are small groups of people who refuse to assimilate or attempt to change mainstream. In the US, examples of subcultures are the hippies, vegetarians, the Amish, and skinheads. These subcultures are part of countercultures since they reject the traditional norms and beliefs of society. Countercultures however, can eventually become mainstream culture. An example were the civil rights activists in the 1960s. Leaders such as Martin Luther King and the men and women who defied the existing laws and protested against segregation and staged sit-ins were considered part of the subculture in the 60s. The believed in equality and anti-discrimination. In contemporary US society, at least when it comes to race and gender, their ideas have become the mainstream values. By questioning tradition and the norms, these people changed culture.

In all human societies, there are commonalities in cultures. These cultural universals are certain cultural aspects that are found in all human societies. All societies possess a complex language pattern and marriage and family are common institutions. Of course, what characterize marriage and family is different among cultures. Marriages can be monogamous, polygamous and who we consider as family is different across societies

In choosing the examples in this chapter on culture, the goal is to rethink "common sense" and try to analyze these ingrained beliefs from a sociological perspective. Our idea of love, table manners and food, and our conception of equality have evolved through time. These are aspects of our lives that we probably pay little attention to, and the fact that we don't pay attention to them is a sign of the power of culture. De Beers does not threaten our lives if we do not buy or demand an engagement ring—their message is powerful enough that we have embraced their belief without the threat of sanctions

Other aspects of society that most people follow without question are diseases and treatments. In 1980, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) became an official disorder with the National Institute of Mental Health. In the past, children having emotional or behavioral problems would talk to parents and was seen as a “phase” of childhood. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, in 2005, nearly 88% of the children prescribed with medication for emotional or behavioral difficulties were diagnosed with concentration, hyperactivity, or impulsivity. Too much energy (in some countries, this is a sign of good health), is a condition in the US that needs to be cured.

In Japanese, they have a term for “death from overwork” or Karoshi. Karoshi is caused by work-related stress such as heart attack and stroke. People who die of Karoshi are relatively young and did not display and signs of previous illnesses. Karoshi was first reported in 1969 and the number of deaths from Karoshi has increased especially during Japan's economic troubles in the 1980s.

Lastly, one interesting cultural aspect of societies is its treatment of animals. Societies have selectively chosen, for historical reasons, which animals are deemed edible and those which are not. In France, Belgium, and Japan, horses are a form of delicacies. Interestingly most of the horse meat comes from the US even though it is taboo to eat horse meat in the US, although not illegal. Interestingly, most people can't tell what kind of meat they are eating, it is cultural norms that is guiding their taste and level of tolerance over which type of meat to eat.

In the Philippines, dog and pigeon meat is eaten. In Islam, pork is forbidden, and among Hindus, beef is not eaten. In parts of India, some people are vegan and do not eat meat or its by products. US society's love affair with animals, from a sociological perspective is interesting. Americans love their pets, but animal cruelty is prevalent in slaughter houses and animals cages. Americans are also consume the most meat (worldwatch.org), more than China with 1.3 billion people and India with 1.1 billion. In the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, the media made a big deal about Chinese delicacies, such as star fish, scorpions, and pig intestines just to name a few. Why is it inappropriate to eat these living creatures in the US and the West, but quite the norm to eat a pig, beef, and salmon? Have you ever wondered what exactly is in a hotdog? Sociology would answer that all these norms are guided by culture. It is not that the animals our society eats are more delicious or “cleaner”, in fact, if you read Eric Schlosser's “Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All American Meal” or watch the movie (Directed by Richard Linklater), you will realize just what happens when a cattle is slaughtered, what goes into our hamburgers,and the social effects of the meat packing industry.

Using our sociological imagination, meat consumption has health, migration, and environmental consequences. In terms of the environment, livestock emit methane and other greenhouses gases through excrement and belching. In fact, research by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows that cow manure and flatulence is responsible for 18% of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the meat packing industry affects migration patterns and foreign labor in the US.

• Material Culture
• Non-Material Culture
• Values
• Norms
• Explicit Norms
• Mores
• Folkways
• Global Culture
• Localization
• Cultural Imperialism
• Cultural Hegemony
• Assimilation
• Cultural Relativism
• Ethnocentric
• Interdependence
• Subculture
• Countercultures
• Multiculturalism
• Cultural Universals